Neolithic Architecture
Architecture, originating in the Neolithic period, has evolved significantly over time, beginning in Southwest Asia around 10000 BC. It spread to Syria, Iraq, Southern Europe, and Central Europe, with architectural designs evolving with migrations. Neolithic people were skilled builders, using mud bricks for dwellings and plaster and paint to create appealing structures. Megalithic temples were worshipped in places like Malta, while European houses were built from daub and wattle. Tombs, some of which still exist, showcase the elaborate construction used in past architectural marvels. Other notable structures include long barrows, henges flint mines, chamber tombs, and curses monuments, as seen in the British Isles. Overall, architecture has a rich history and continues to evolve with the changing landscapes of the past.
Mesopotamia and Egypt Architecture
Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt marked the beginning of civilization and an important era in architecture. Mesopotamian inhabitants pioneered permanent structures, courtyard houses, urban planning, and ziggurats, while also erected large monoliths made from mud bricks. They were the originators of Adobe-brick, superior to vitreous brick due to its superior thermal properties and low manufacturing cost. Red brick was used in waterways, monuments, and decorations, making these places a significant part of the history of architecture.
Sumerians
The Sumerians, skilled masons, used bitumen to join bricks, which evolved from rounded shapes to plano-convex and were economical in manufacturing and plastering. To reduce deterioration, colored stone and clay nails were used to reinforce buildings. Other materials used in the Mesopotamian era included cedar from Lebanon, lapis lazuli from India, and diorite from Arabia. These bricks were a significant part of the Mesopotamian era.
Babylonian
Babylonian temples were massive, crude brick structures with buttresses support for rainwater drainage. Lead-made drains in Ur were ahead of their time. Brick application led to the development of pilasters, enamel tiles, frescos, and columns. Masons also developed skills in building with newer materials like gold, tiles, and zinc to make their walls more appealing.
Assyria
The Assyrian architects in the Assyria region initially copied the Babylonian choice of brick for building materials, but later switched to stone due to its abundance in their surroundings. Their palaces featured colored slabs of stone and bas-relief, which contrasted with the Babylonian painted structures. Bas-relief developed into more complex realistic forms, sometimes combined with gems and other metals.
The Sumerians introduced the first built forms resembling a city, such as Uruk in the Epic of Gilgamesh, with walls, streets, temples, and gardens. The idea of planning resulted in finer structures built on the irregular landscape. Houses were designed as squares, with the main house being the central and the rest as attachments. Residential houses opened to courtyards, providing essential ventilation and differentiating private and public spaces.
Mesopotamian palaces, temples, and ziggurats were large complexes built with materials mentioned earlier, with unique forms and layouts. Temples acted as meeting places for men and gods, featuring rectangular corners aligned with compass directions and an observatory roof for timekeeping. Landscaping was also important, with temple doors being short axis for men and long axis for gods’ entry. Ziggurats were pyramidal shapes with terraces with straight or spiral ramps for access, giving rise to modern staircases for high-rise buildings.
Early Mesopotamian architects took great care in designing outlines of their structures, placing great emphasis on the curves and angles of walls, domes, roof slopes, and foundation layouts. They also included beautiful gardens, fountains, and vacant spaces for waste disposal.
Egypt
The Great Pyramids, a significant architectural development in Egypt, showcases the evolution of mud brick architecture. Pharaoh Zoser in 2620 BC commissioned a unique burial chamber, incorporating rectangular stone mastabas on top of each other. This led to the first pyramid, a significant advancement in Egyptian architecture. The next civilization, the Knossos and Mycenae, lived around the Aegean Sea and improved Egyptian and Mesopotamia architecture, incorporating natural rock columns. This continued until the Greek civilization around 700-500 BC. The Great Pyramids demonstrate the evolution of Egyptian and Mesopotamian architecture.
Greek Architecture
Greek architectures have had a profound impact on modern-day architecture, blending elements from past civilizations to create delicate flatted columns, horizontal lintels, and sculptures to conceal roof edges. Greek builders perfected their skills to achieve a balance, with wood-made pillars and decorated capitals becoming influential in later architecture. The substitution of wood to stone columns began around 620 BC, bringing defining elegance and optical tricks. Greek architectures introduced the Doric and Ionic styles, such as the Pantheon and Greek theater, which pioneered the auditorium with a raised stage and sloping seating arrangement. Around 200 BC, Greek builders in Turkey began using cement as a core structural material, a mix of lime, clay, sand, and water. The Romans also used volcanic lava or pozzolanic, which proved remarkable in Roman roads, further influencing Greek architectures.
Roman Architecture
The Roman Empire, a nation that had conquered the Greeks, began to influence architecture through their “Orders of Architecture” written by Vitruvius in the 1st Century BC. This concept led to Classical Architecture, a combination of Greek and Roman ideals in building. Romans embraced the idea of buildings representing their presence within space, focusing on domes and colonnades in harmony with their imperial ruler-ship and civic order.
The Roman Architectural Revolution resulted in the development of the arch, vault, and dome, which were rarely used in Europe. The use of Roman concrete coupled with innovativeness led to the erection of many unprecedented structures across the Roman Empire, including Roman temples, bridges, harbors, aqueducts, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, Mausoleums, Roman Churches, and circus palaces. Roman domes, such as the Pantheon and Diocletian Baths in Rome, featured vaulted ceilings that enabled huge covered public spaces.
The Roman building style was realized through the development and application of these concepts. The Greeks, for example, made little use of the dome, preferring horizontal lintels that spanned open spaces. Roman ingenuity propelled this concept to appear in major architectural designs, with the Roman brick arch spanning 50 yards.
It is difficult to differentiate between the arch, vault, and dome since they share the same concept: the vault is a deep arch, while the dome is a collection of arches with a shared center. Concrete played a crucial role in achieving these achievements, as seen in the Pont du Gard and the Pantheon, both built in the 1st and 2nd Centuries respectively.
The Romans, a significant part of the Roman Empire, utilized various construction techniques, including the arch, vault, and dome, in their Roman bridges. These impressive structures, such as the Trajan bridge in Spain, were built using un-cemented granite and 8-ton blocks winched into place by pulleys. The Roman Empire also built bridges and aqueducts in places without solid rock or islands, such as the Pantheon roof. The dome, open at the top, added flamboyance and visual thrills. Roman architectures even made it possible to place a dome on a square base, a move that traditional architecture could not make.
After the Roman Empire’s relocation to Byzantium or Constantinople, its architectural prowess continued to be influential, particularly during the Medieval and Renaissance eras. Buildings increased in geometric complexity as other construction materials evolved, such as bricks and plaster combined with stone, classical orders, mosaics, and complex domes. Additionally, massive piers and windows were used to filter light through sheets of alabaster, illuminating the rooms below.
Asian Architecture
The architecture of Asia, including the complex Hindu temples of the Indians and the Pagan, was influenced by various factors. The Pagoda style, originating from solid rocks, was popular in China and Japan. Persian architecture, particularly the Dome of the Rock, was a notable element in Islamic cultures. In Africa, mud and palm leaf roofed houses were common. Korean architecture, distinct from Chinese and Japanese styles, featured vertical or horizontal structures, often built on a stone sub-foundation and roofed with tiles. The walls were typically earth-based and featured movable wooden doors. Overall, the architecture of Asia continues to evolve and evolve.
19th Century Architecture
The 19th century was a period of rapid evolution in architecture, combining traditional elements with modern designs. This eclectic approach led to the creation of magnificent buildings, often blending elements like stone, cement, and wood. However, the ingredients of architecture remained consistent, such as cast iron, which later paved the way for steel and glass, and modern skyscrapers. Prefabrication of cast iron also enabled the creation of buildings featuring arches and vaults, contributing to the evolution of architecture.
20th Century Architecture
In the 1900s, the 20th Century architecture revolutionized the world by incorporating new materials like mud bricks, stone, and cement to create modern structures. Engineers developed new technologies in materials, structure, plan, and building forms, such as prefabricated semi-circular vaults for greenhouses. This led to the development of modular systems, scales, and dimensions in architecture. Iron construction produced domed and arched spaces, while stone construction was used for the rest. Skeleleton frames, combined with glass and horizontal beams, became the norm.
Population growth forced architecture to change dramatically, leading to the development of styles to meet the diverse needs of people. The Romans introduced a unique form of architecture with the use of vaults, arches, and domes, which continue to feature in modern buildings. These features are essential for modern bridges and large halls, which require strong foundations. Without the invention of these important architectural designs, processes, and materials, it would be difficult for the modern generation to be proud of their architectural achievements.
Influence of the Arch, the Dome, and the Vault in 20th Century Architecture
Mud bricks and bitumen, dating back to the Neolithic era, played a significant role in the evolution of architectural ingredients such as Portland cement, glass, and steel. The history of architecture, which has led to modern skyscrapers, is crucial. The widespread use of vaults, arches, and domes in architecture, both past and present, demonstrates the suitability of these designs for buildings and architecture. The use of arched and vaulted forms has significantly influenced the emergence of new materials, structures, plans, and building forms in the modern world.
